What Animals Were Introduced To The New World

Exchanges of people, diseases, plants, animals, and minerals betwixt the Americas and the Old World

The Columbian substitution, also known as the Columbian interchange, was the widespread transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, commodities, civilisation, human populations, engineering science, diseases, and ideas betwixt the New Earth (the Americas) in the Western Hemisphere, and the Former World (Afro-Eurasia) in the Eastern Hemisphere, in the late 15th and following centuries.^[one] It is named after the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus and is related to the European colonization and global trade following his 1492 voyage.^[ane] Some of the exchanges were purposeful; some were adventitious or unintended. Communicable diseases of Old World origin resulted in an 80 to 95 percent reduction in the number of Indigenous peoples of the Americas from the 15th century onwards, almost severely in the Caribbean.^[1] The cultures of both hemispheres were significantly impacted by the migration of people (both costless and enslaved) from the Old World to the New. African slaves and European colonists replaced the Indigenous populations beyond the Americas. The number of Africans coming to the New World was far greater than the number of Europeans coming to the New World in the get-go three centuries after Columbus.^{[2] [iii]}

The new contacts among the global population resulted in the interchange of a wide variety of crops and livestock, which supported increases in food production and population in the Old World. American crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, cassava, sweet potatoes, and chili peppers became important crops around the globe. Old World rice, wheat, sugar cane, and livestock, among other crops, became important in the New Globe. American-produced silver flooded the world and became the standard metal used in coinage, specially in Imperial People's republic of china.

The term was first used in 1972 past the American historian and professor Alfred W. Crosby in his environmental history volume The Columbian Commutation.^{[1] [4]} It was apace adopted by other historians and journalists.

Etymology [edit]

In 1972 Alfred W. Crosby, an American historian at the University of Texas at Austin, published The Columbian Exchange,^[4] and subsequent volumes inside the same decade. His primary focus was mapping the biological and cultural transfers that occurred betwixt the Old and New Worlds. He studied the effects of Columbus's voyages betwixt the two – specifically, the global diffusion of crops, seeds, and plants from the New World to the Old, which radically transformed agriculture in both regions. His inquiry fabricated a lasting contribution to the manner scholars understand the variety of contemporary ecosystems that arose due to these transfers.^[5]

The term has become popular among historians and journalists and has since been enhanced with Crosby'south later book in three editions, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900. Charles C. Mann, in his book 1493 further expands and updates Crosby'due south original inquiry.^{[half dozen]}

Groundwork [edit]

The weight of scientific bear witness is that humans beginning came to the New World from Siberia thousands of years agone. There is little boosted evidence of contacts between the peoples of the Old World and those of the New World, although the literature speculating on pre-Columbian trans-oceanic journeys is extensive. The get-go inhabitants of the New Globe brought with them domestic dogs and, possibly, a container, the calabash, both of which persisted in their new home.^[7] The medieval explorations, visits, and cursory residence of the Norsemen in Greenland, Newfoundland, and Vinland in the tardily 10th century and 11th century had no known bear on on the Americas.^[8] Many scientists take that possible contact between Polynesians and coastal peoples in S America most 1200 resulted in genetic similarities and the adoption by Polynesians of an American crop, the sweet white potato.^[9] However, it was only with the first voyage of the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus and his crew to the Americas in 1492 that the Columbian substitution began, resulting in major transformations in the cultures and livelihoods of the peoples in both hemispheres.^[1]

Diseases [edit]

The first manifestation of the Columbian exchange may have been the spread of syphilis from the native people of the Caribbean Sea to Europe. The history of syphilis has been well-studied, but the origin of the illness remains a bailiwick of contend.^[10] At that place are two primary hypotheses: one proposes that syphilis was carried to Europe from the Americas past the crew of Christopher Columbus in the early 1490s, while the other proposes that syphilis previously existed in Europe just went unrecognized.^[11] The first written descriptions of the disease in the Old World came in 1493.^[12] The first large outbreak of syphilis in Europe occurred in 1494–1495 among the army of Charles Viii during its invasion of Naples.^{[xi] [13] [14] [15]} Many of the crew members who had served with Columbus had joined this army. After the victory, Charles's largely mercenary army returned to their corresponding homes, thereby spreading "the Nifty Pox" across Europe and killing up to v million people.^{[16] [17]}

The Columbian substitution of diseases in the other direction was by far deadlier. The peoples of the Americas had had no contact to European and African diseases and lilliputian or no immunity.^[xviii] An epidemic of swine influenza beginning in 1493 killed many of the Taino people inhabiting Caribbean islands. The pre-contact population of the isle of Hispanola was probably at to the lowest degree 500,000, but past 1526, fewer than 500 were still live. Spanish exploitation was part of the cause of the near-extinction of the native people.^[19] In 1518, smallpox was commencement recorded in the Americas and became the deadliest imported European disease. Forty percent of the 200,000 people living in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, later United mexican states City, are estimated to take died of smallpox in 1520 during the war of the Aztecs with conquistador Hernán Cortés.^[20] Epidemics, perchance of smallpox and spread from Central America, decimated the population of the Inca Empire a few years earlier the arrival of the Castilian.^[21] The ravages of European diseases and Castilian exploitation reduced the Mexican population from an estimated twenty million to barely more than than a million in the 16th century.^[22] The ethnic population of Republic of peru decreased from about 9 million in the pre-Columbian era to 600,000 in 1620.^[23] Scholars Nunn and Qian approximate that 80–95 percent of the Native American population died in epidemics within the commencement 100–150 years following 1492. The deadliest Sometime World diseases in the Americas were smallpox, measles, whooping cough, chicken pox, bubonic plague, typhus, and malaria.^[24]

African slavery [edit]

The Atlantic slave merchandise consisted of the involuntary immigration of xi.7 million Africans, primarily from W Africa, to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries, far outnumbering the about 3.4 1000000 Europeans who migrated, about voluntarily, to the New World between 1492 and 1840.^[25] The prevalence of African slaves in the New Globe was related to the demographic decline of New World peoples and the need of European colonists for labor. The Africans had greater immunities to Old Earth diseases than the New Globe peoples, and were less likely to die from illness. The journey of enslaved Africans from Africa to America is unremarkably known as the "middle passage".^[26]

Enslaved Africans helped shape an emerging African-American culture in the New World. They participated in both skilled and unskilled labor. Their descendants gradually adult an ethnicity that drew from the numerous African tribes as well equally European nationalities.^{[27] [28]} The descendants of African slaves brand up a majority of the population in some Caribbean countries, notably Republic of haiti and Jamaica, and a sizeable minority in most American countries.^[29]

A movement for the abolition of slavery, known as abolitionism, developed in Europe and the Americas during the 18th century. The efforts of abolitionists eventually led to the abolition of slavery (the British Empire in 1833, the United states in 1865, and Brazil in 1888).

Silver [edit]

The New World produced eighty percent or more of the world's silvery in the 16th and 17th centuries, nigh of it at Potosí in Bolivia, merely also in Mexico. The founding of the city of Manila in the Philippines in 1571 for the purpose of facilitating trade in New Globe silvery with People's republic of china for silk, porcelain, and other luxury products has been called by scholars the "origin of world trade."^[thirty] Communist china was the globe'southward largest economy and in the 1570s adopted silver (which it did non produce in whatsoever quantity) every bit its medium of exchange. China had little interest in buying foreign products and so trade consisted of large quantities of silver coming into China to pay for the Chinese products that strange countries desired. Silver made it to Manila either through Europe and by send around the Cape of Good Promise or across the Pacific Ocean in Spanish galleons from the Mexican port of Acapulco. From Manila the silver was transported onward to China on Portuguese and afterwards Dutch ships. Silver was likewise smuggled from Potosi to Buenos Aires, Argentina to pay slavers for African slaves imported into the New World.^[31]

The enormous quantities of silver imported into Kingdom of spain and China created vast wealth but besides caused inflation and the value of silver to pass up. In 16th century China, six ounces of silver was equal to the value of i ounce of gold. In 1635, it took xiii ounces of silver to equal in value one ounce of gold. Taxes in both countries were assessed in the weight of silver, not its value. The shortage of acquirement due to the decline in the value of argent may have contributed indirectly to the autumn of the Ming dynasty in 1644. As well, silver from the Americas financed Spain's attempt to conquer other countries in Europe, and the turn down in the value of silvery left Spain faltering in the maintenance of its world-wide empire and retreating from its aggressive policies in Europe afterward 1650.^{[32] [33]}

Effects [edit]

Crops [edit]

Because of the new trading resulting from the Columbian commutation, several plants native to the Americas accept spread around the globe, including potatoes, maize, tomatoes, and tobacco.^[34] Before 1500, potatoes were non grown outside of South America. By the 18th century, they were cultivated and consumed widely in Europe and had become important crops in both India and Northward America. Potatoes somewhen became an important staple of the diet in much of Europe, contributing to an estimated 25% of the population growth in Afro-Eurasia between 1700 and 1900.^[35] Many European rulers, including Frederick the Bang-up of Prussia and Catherine the Slap-up of Russia, encouraged the cultivation of the potato.^[36]

Maize and cassava, introduced by the Portuguese from S America in the 16th century,^[37] gradually replaced sorghum and millet as Africa's nearly important food crops.^[38] Spanish colonizers of the 16th-century introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet potatoes, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia.^[39] On a larger scale, the introduction of potatoes and maize to the Old World "resulted in caloric and nutritional improvements over previously existing staples" throughout the Eurasian landmass,^[40] enabling more varied and abundant food production.^[41]

Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New Earth via Spain, were initially prized in Italy mainly for their ornamental value. Just starting in the 19th century, tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cuisine and, ultimately, Italian cuisine in general.^[42] Coffee (introduced in the Americas circa 1720) from Africa and the Center Due east and sugarcane (introduced from the Indian subcontinent) from the Spanish West Indies became the main export commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili and potatoes from South America take get an integral part of their cuisine.^[43]

Because crops traveled but often their endemic fungi did non, for a limited time yields were higher in their new lands. Dark & Gent 2001 term this the " Yield honeymoon ". However, as globalization has continued the Columbian Substitution of pathogens has continued and crops have declined back toward their endemic yields – the honeymoon is ending.^[44]

Rice [edit]

Rice was another crop that became widely cultivated during the Columbian substitution. As the demand in the New World grew, so did the knowledge of how to cultivate information technology. The two principal species used were Oryza glaberrima and Oryza sativa, originating from West Africa and Southeast Asia, respectively. European planters in the New Globe relied upon the skills of enslaved Africans to cultivate both species.^[45] Georgia, South Carolina, Republic of cuba and Puerto Rico were major centers of rice production during the colonial era. Enslaved Africans brought their knowledge of water command, milling, winnowing, and other agrarian practices to the fields. This widespread cognition amid enslaved Africans eventually led to rice becoming a staple dietary detail in the New Globe.^{[v] [46]}

Fruits [edit]

Citrus fruits and grapes were brought to the Americas from the Mediterranean. At first planters struggled to suit these crops to the climates in the New World, but by the late 19th century they were cultivated more consistently.^[47]

Bananas were introduced into the Americas in the 16th century by Portuguese sailors who came across the fruits in West Africa, while engaged in commercial ventures and the slave trade. Bananas were consumed in minimal amounts in the Americas as belatedly as the 1880s. The U.Due south. did not run across major increases in assistant consumption until big plantations were established in the Caribbean.^[48]

Tomatoes [edit]

It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become a widely accustomed food item. Tobacco, potatoes, chili peppers, tomatillos, and tomatoes are all members of the nightshade family. Similar to some European Nightshade varieties, tomatoes and potatoes tin can be harmful or even lethal, if the wrong function of the plant is consumed in excess. Physicians in the 16th-century had good reason to be wary that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous; they suspected information technology of generating "melancholic humours".^{[ commendation needed ]}

In 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no tape exists of anyone consuming them at this fourth dimension. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the botanical garden of Aranjuez nigh Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Espana, wrote, "information technology is said [tomatoes] are good for sauces". In spite of these comments, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, merely rarely for culinary employ.^{[ citation needed ]} On Oct 31, 1548, the tomato was given its first proper name anywhere in Europe when a house steward of Cosimo I de' Medici, Duke of Florence, wrote to the De' Medici'south individual secretarial assistant that the basket of pomi d'oro "had arrived safely". At this time, the label pomi d'oro was likewise used to refer to figs, melons, and citrus fruits in treatises by scientists.^[49] In the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy. For instance, the Florentine aristocrat Giovan Vettorio Soderini wrote how they "were to be sought but for their beauty" and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the 50 years or so post-obit their arrival in Europe, and were only occasionally depicted in works of art.^{[ citation needed ]} The practice of using love apple sauce with pasta developed just in the late nineteenth century. Today around 32,000 acres (thirteen,000 ha) of tomatoes are cultivated in Italian republic.^[49]

Livestock [edit]

Native Americans learned to use horses to hunt bison, dramatically expanding their hunting range.

Initially at least, the Columbian exchange of animals largely went in one direction, from Europe to the New World, as the Eurasian regions had domesticated many more than animals. Horses, donkeys, mules, pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, large dogs, cats, and bees were rapidly adopted by native peoples for transport, food, and other uses.^[50] One of the commencement European exports to the Americas, the horse, changed the lives of many Native American tribes. The mountain tribes shifted to a nomadic lifestyle, based on hunting bison on horseback. They largely gave upwards settled agriculture. Horse culture was adopted gradually by Great Plains Indians. The existing Plains tribes expanded their territories with horses, and the animals were considered so valuable that horse herds became a measure of wealth.^[51] While mesoamerican peoples (Mayas in particular) already skilful apiculture,^[52] producing wax and honey from a variety of bees (such as Melipona or Trigona),^[53] European bees (Apis mellifera)—more productive, delivering a beloved with less water content and allowing for an easier extraction from beehives—were introduced in New Spain, becoming an important part of farming product.^[54]

The effects of the introduction of European livestock on the environments and peoples of the New World were not always positive. In the Caribbean area, the proliferation of European animals consumed native brute and undergrowth, changing habitat. If free ranging, the animals often damaged conucos, plots managed by indigenous peoples for subsistence.^[55]

The Mapuche of Araucanía were fast to prefer the horse from the Castilian, and improve their military capabilities as they fought the Arauco War against Castilian colonizers.^{[56] [57]} Until the arrival of the Spanish, the Mapuches had largely maintained chilihueques (llamas) as livestock. The Castilian introduction of sheep caused some contest betwixt the two domesticated species. Anecdotal evidence of the mid-17th century show that by then both species coexisted but that the sheep far outnumbered the llamas. The decline of llamas reached a signal in the belatedly 18th century when but the Mapuche from Mariquina and Huequén next to Angol raised the brute.^[58] In the Chiloé Archipelago the introduction of pigs by the Spanish proved a success. They could feed on the arable shellfish and algae exposed by the big tides.^[58]

In the other direction, the turkey, republic of guinea hog, and Muscovy duck were New Earth animals that were transferred to Europe.^[59]

Medicines [edit]

European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the showtime effective treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this illness, simply some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes amidst sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle-prison cell disease.^[sixty] The resistance of sub-Saharan Africans to malaria in the southern United States and the Caribbean contributed profoundly to the specific character of the Africa-sourced slavery in those regions.^[61]

Similarly, yellow fever is thought to take been brought to the Americas from Africa via the Atlantic slave merchandise. Considering information technology was endemic in Africa, many people there had caused amnesty. Europeans suffered higher rates of death than did African-descended persons when exposed to yellow fever in Africa and the Americas, where numerous epidemics swept the colonies beginning in the 17th century and standing into the late 19th century. The disease caused widespread fatalities in the Caribbean during the heyday of slave-based sugar plantation. The replacement of native forests by carbohydrate plantations and factories facilitated its spread in the tropical surface area by reducing the number of potential natural mosquito predators.The means of yellow fever transmission was unknown until 1881, when Carlos Finlay suggested that the disease was transmitted through mosquitoes, now known to be female mosquitoes of the species Aedes aegypti.^[62]

Cultural exchanges [edit]

One of the results of the movement of people betwixt New and Old Worlds were cultural exchanges. For example, in the article "The Myth of Early Globalization: The Atlantic Economy, 1500–1800", Pieter Emmer makes the point that "from 1500 onward, a 'clash of cultures' had begun in the Atlantic".^[63] This clash of culture involved the transfer of European values to indigenous cultures. As an example, the emergence of the concept of private property in regions where property was often viewed as communal, concepts of monogamy (although many ethnic peoples were already monogamous), the role of women and children in the social system, and different concepts of labor, including slavery,^[64] although slavery was already a practise amid many indigenous peoples and was widely skillful or introduced by Europeans into the Americas. Another example included the European abhorrence of human cede, a religious practice amongst some ethnic populations.^{[ citation needed ]}

During the initial stages of European colonization of the Americas, Europeans encountered fence-less lands. They believed that the country was unimproved and bachelor for their taking, as they sought economic opportunity and homesteads. However, when European settlers arrived in Virginia, they encountered a fully established indigenous people, the Powhatan. The Powhatan farmers in Virginia scattered their farm plots inside larger cleared areas. These larger cleared areas were a communal place for growing useful plants. As the Europeans viewed fences as hallmarks of civilisation, they ready nearly transforming "the land into something more suitable for themselves".^[65]

Tobacco was a New Globe agronomical product, originally a luxury good spread as part of the Columbian substitution. Every bit is discussed in regard to the trans-Atlantic slave trade, the tobacco trade increased demand for costless labor and spread tobacco worldwide. In discussing the widespread uses of tobacco, the Spanish physician Nicolas Monardes (1493–1588) noted that "The black people that take gone from these parts to the Indies, take taken upwardly the aforementioned manner and use of tobacco that the Indians accept".^[66] As Europeans traveled to other parts of the world, they took with them the practices related to tobacco. Demand for tobacco grew in the grade of these cultural exchanges among peoples.^{[ commendation needed ]}

One of the most clearly notable areas of cultural disharmonism and exchange was that of religion, frequently the atomic number 82 point of cultural conversion. In the Spanish and Portuguese dominions, the spread of Catholicism, steeped in a European values system, was a major objective of colonization. Europeans oftentimes pursued it via explicit policies of suppression of ethnic languages, cultures and religions. In British America, Protestant missionaries converted many members of indigenous tribes to Protestantism. The French colonies had a more outright religious mandate, equally some of the early on explorers, such as Jacques Marquette, were too Catholic priests. In time, and given the European technological and immunological superiority which aided and secured their dominance, indigenous religions declined in the centuries following the European settlement of the Americas.

While Mapuche people did prefer the horse, sheep, and wheat, the over-all scant adoption of Spanish applied science by Mapuche has been characterized every bit a means of cultural resistance.

Co-ordinate to Caroline Dodds Pennock, in Atlantic history indigenous people are frequently seen equally static recipients of transatlantic encounters. But thousands of Native Americans crossed the ocean during the sixteenth century, some by selection.^[67]

Organism examples [edit]

Post-Columbian transfers of native organisms with close ties to humans, Late 15th to 20th century

Blazon of organism	Afro-Eurasia to the Americas	Americas to Afro-Eurasia
Domesticated animals	Barbary dove true cat (domestic – several wild species already nowadays) camel (18th–20th century) cattle (Would have been used for meat, dairy, and for pulling a plow or railroad vehicle.) chicken donkey duck (Old World domestic ducks are descended from the wild mallard, unlike the Northward American Muscovy duck) goat (the goats of the Onetime Earth, genus Capra, are different from the mountain goat of the New World, genus Oreamnos; would have become a source of meat and milk in Caribbean area especially) goose (species of New Globe geese existed, but farmyards likewise would have wanted geese for laying eggs in addition to meat) guineafowl honey bee (European honey bee – other wild and domesticated species already present) aureate hamster horse (technically reintroduced afterwards extinction in North America) Mule koi ostrich pig dove quail (European and Japanese species) rabbit (domestic) sheep (Domestic only. Wild bighorn sheep do not alive east of the Mississippi River and would not exist discovered until afterwards most of the interchange was complete.) h2o buffalo yak zebu	alpaca American mink guinea pig llama long-tailed chinchilla New World parrots (Kept as pets) Muscovy duck turkey (Mexican subspecies Meleagris gallopavo gallopavo.)
Other Animals	ring-necked pheasant mute swan peacock (Florida)	Canada goose (escaped from menageries of wealthy) ruddy duck
Cultivated plants	adzuki bean almond aloe vera anise apple apricot asparagus baobab banana (including cooking banana) barley basil beetroot black-eyed pea Brassica oleracea-derived vegetables broccoli Brussels sprouts cabbage cauliflower collard greens kale kohlrabi rapeseed breadfruit (brought from Asia to Caribbean area) wide edible bean Cannabis (including hemp) cantaloupe carrot celery cherry chickpea cinnamon (not just species from Ceylon, merely also Chinese and Southeast Asia) citrus (orange, lemon, etc.) coconut (brought from Asia to Caribbean) coffee mutual fig (other species of Ficus genus arable, but primeval explorers did not know of existence or edibility until later on.) coriander (also known as cilantro) cucumber cumin eggplant (aubergine) Ellis (oil palm) fennel finger millet foxtail millet flax garlic ginger goji grape (wild species present in Northward America, but non wine grapes) hazelnut hops jackfruit (brought from Asia to Caribbean) kiwifruit kola nut leek lentil lettuce mace mango mangosteen melon (watermelon, cantaloupe, honeydew, etc.) millet mint Momordica charantia (bitter melon) mung edible bean nutmeg oat okra olive onion opium poppy oregano parsnip pea peach pear pearl millet persimmon (Asian species only) pistachio plum (Cultivated nutrient species from Asia only) pomegranate proso millet radish raspberry rice rosemary rye sage sesame sorghum soybean spinach sugarcane and sugar beet tamarind taro turmeric turnip walnut (commercial varieties) wheat yam (African yam; sweet potatoes are sometimes called "yam" in the U.S.)	açai American persimmon (ornamental) Annona glabra (alligator apple) Annona reticulata (custard apple) agave allspice amaranth (as grain) annatto arracacha arrowroot or Maranta arundinacea avocado black ruby blackness walnut (used for lumber and for ornamental purposes) huckleberry (commercial varieties) Brazil nut Calathea allouia (leren) Canna indica (achira) capsicum (bell pepper and chili pepper) cashew cassava (manioc, tapioca, yuca) chayote cherimoya chia coca leafage cocoa bean cotton (long-staple species) cranberry (large cranberry, or bearberry species) cucurbits (many squashes and gourds) butternut squash pumpkin Hubbard squash acorn squash pattypan squash zucchini (courgette) Eryngium foetidum (culantro, Mexican coriander) Feijoa sellowiana (feijoa, pineapple guava, Brazilian guava, guavasteen) guarana guava (common) Helianthus (sunflower) Jerusalem artichoke jicama maize (corn) Magnolia, several species (ornamental purposes) Manilkara zapota (sapodilla) mashua Opuntia ficus-indica (prickly pear) Oxalis tuberosa (New Zealand yam) papaya Pawpaw passionfruit, fruit and flowers for gardens; multiple species. peanut pecan Phaseolus vulgaris (beans: pinto, lima, kidney, etc.) physalis (greatcoat gooseberry) pineapple pitaya (dragon fruit) potato quinoa cerise oak (lumber and ornamental) rubber sassafras soursop stevia strawberry (commercial varieties) sugar-apple carbohydrate maple sweet potato tamarillo tobacco tomato tomatillo ulluco vanilla wild rice (Texas, almanac and northern species) yerba mate yucca
Cultivated fungi	Agaricus bisporus (button mushrooms, chestnut mushrooms, portobello mushrooms) cloud ear fungus enoki mushroom oyster mushroom (some varieties) Rhizopus oligosporus (tempeh) shiitake mushroom snow ear mucus truffle	huitlacoche (corn smut) oyster mushroom (some varieties)
Infectious diseases	bubonic plague chickenpox cholera diphtheria gonorrhea influenza leprosy malaria measles mumps rubella ruby fever smallpox tuberculosis typhoid fever typhus whooping cough yaws xanthous fever	Chagas disease pinta syphilis (disputed)

Afterward history [edit]

Plants that arrived past country, body of water, or air in the times earlier 1492 are called archaeophytes, and plants introduced to Europe after those times are called neophytes. Invasive species of plants and pathogens also were introduced by adventure, including such weeds as tumbleweeds (Salsola spp.) and wild oats (Avena fatua). Some plants introduced intentionally, such as the kudzu vine introduced in 1894 from Nippon to the United States to aid command soil erosion, have since been found to be invasive pests in the new environment.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Fungi have likewise been transported, such equally the one responsible for Dutch elm illness, killing American elms in North American forests and cities, where many had been planted every bit street trees. Some of the invasive species have become serious ecosystem and economic problems subsequently establishing in the New World environments.^{[68] [69]} A beneficial, although probably unintentional, introduction is Saccharomyces eubayanus, the yeast responsible for lager beer now idea to take originated in Patagonia.^[70] Others have crossed the Atlantic to Europe and accept changed the class of history. In the 1840s, Phytophthora infestans crossed the oceans, damaging the potato ingather in several European nations. In Ireland, the potato ingather was totally destroyed; the Keen Famine of Ireland caused millions to starve to death or emigrate.^{[ citation needed ]}

In addition to these, many animals were introduced to new habitats on the other side of the world either accidentally or incidentally. These include such animals every bit brown rats, earthworms (apparently absent from parts of the pre-Columbian New Earth), and zebra mussels, which arrived on ships.^[71] Escaped and feral populations of non-indigenous animals accept thrived in both the Sometime and New Worlds, ofttimes negatively impacting or displacing native species. In the New Earth, populations of feral European cats, pigs, horses, and cattle are mutual, and the Burmese python and dark-green iguana are considered problematic in Florida. In the Sometime World, the Eastern gray squirrel has been specially successful in colonising Great Britain, and populations of raccoons can now be found in some regions of Germany, the Caucasus, and Nippon. Fur farm escapees such as coypu and American mink have extensive populations.^{[ citation needed ]}

See likewise [edit]

• Arab Agricultural Revolution
• Early impact of Mesoamerican appurtenances in Iberian order
• First contact (anthropology)
• Great American Interchange
• List of food plants native to the Americas
• Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories
• Global silver trade from the 16th to 19th centuries
• Transformation of culture

References [edit]

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Further reading [edit]

• The Columbian Commutation: Plants, Animals, and Illness between the Old and New Worlds by Alfred W. Crosby (2009)
• 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Earlier Columbus by Charles C. Mann (2006)
• Indian Givers: How the Indians of the Americas Transformed the World by Jack Weatherford (2010)

External links [edit]

• Worlds Together, Worlds Apart by Jeremy Adelman, Stephen Aron, Stephen Kotkin, et al.
• Foods that Changed the World by Steven R. King from the Wayback Machine
• The Columbian Exchange video, study guide, analysis, and didactics guide

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbian_exchange

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